FIRST PART
ELEMENTARY PRINCIPLES OR THE SOUNDS AND CHARACTERS
CHAPTER
THE INDIVIDUAL SOUNDS AND CHARACTERS
§ 5. The Consonants: their Forms and Names.
(Cf. the Table of Alphabets.)
Among the abundant literature on the subject, special attention is directed to: A. Berliner, Beiträge zur hebr. Gramm., Berlin, 1879, p. 15 ff., on the names, forms, and pronunciation of the consonants in Talmud and Midrash; H. Strack, Schreibkunst u. Schrift bei d. Hebräern, PRE.3, Lpz. 1906, p. 766 ff.; Benzinger, Hebr. Archäologie2, Tübingen, 1907, p. 172 ff.; Nowack, Lehrbuch d. hebr. Archäol., Freiburg, 1894, i. 279 ff.; Lidzbarski, Handbuch d. nordsem. Epigraphik, Weimar, 1898, i. 173 ff.; also his art. 'Hebrew Alphabet,' in the Jewish Encyclopaedia, i, 1901, p. 439 ff. (cf. his Ephomeris, i. 316 ff.); and 'Die Namen der Alphabet-buchstaben', in Ephemeris, ii. 125 ff.; Kenyon, art. 'Writing,' in the Dictionary of the Bible, iv. Edinb. 1902, p. 944 ff.; Nöldeke, 'Die semit. Buchstabennamen,' in Beitr. zur semit. Sprachwiss., Strassb. 1904, p. 124 ff.; F. Praetorius, Ueber den Ursprung des kanaan. Alphabets, Berlin, 1906; H. Grimme, 'Zur Genesis des semit. Alphabets,' in ZA. xx. 1907, p. 49 ff.; R. Stübe, Grundlinien zu einer Entwickelungsgesch. d. Schrift, Munich, 1907; Jermain, In the path of the Alphabet, Fort Wayne, 1907. — L. Blau, Studien zum althebr. Buchwesen, &c., Strassb. 1902; and his 'Ueber d. Einfluss d. althebr. Buchwesens auf d. Originale', &c., in Festschr. zu Ehren A. Berliners, Frkf. 1903.
The best tables of alphabets are those of J. Euting in G. Bickell's Outlines of Heb. Gram. transl. by S. I. Curtiss, Lpz. 1877; in Pt. vii of the Oriental Series of the Palaeographical Soc., London, 1882; and, the fullest of all, in Chwolson's Corpus inscr. Hebr., Petersburg, 1882; also Lidzbarski's in the Jewish Encycl., see above.
Old Hebrew (or Old Canaanitish2) writing, as it was used on public monuments in the beginning of the ninth and in the second half of the eighth century B. C., is to be seen in the inscription of
The Jewish sarcophagus-inscriptions of the time of Christ, found in Jerusalem in 1905, almost without exception exhibit a pure square character. This altered little in the course of centuries, so that the age of a Hebrew MS. cannot easily be determined from the style of the writing. The oldest known biblical fragment is the Nash papyrus (found in 1902), containing the ten commandments and the beginning of Dt 6:4 f. , of the end of the first or beginning of the second century A. D.; cf. N. Peters, Die älteste Abschr. der 10 Gebote, Freibg. i. B. 1905. Of actual MSS. of the Bible the oldest is probably one of 820–850 A. D. described by Ginsburg, Introd., p. 469 ff., at the head of his sixty principal MSS.; next in age is the codex of Moses ben Asher at Cairo (897 A. D., cf. the art. 'Scribes' in the Jew. Encycl. xi and Gottheil in JQR. 1905, p. 32). The date (916 A. D.) of the Codex prophetarum Babylon. Petropol. (see § 8 g, note) is quite certain. — In the synagogue-rolls a distinction is drawn between the Tam-character (said to be so called from Rabbi Tam, grandson of R.YisÌhÌaÒqiÖ , in the twelfth century) with its straight strokes, square corners and 'tittles' (taÒgiÖn ), in German and Polish MSS., and the foreign character with rounded letters and tittles in Spanish MSS. See further E. König, Einl. in das A. T., Bonn, 1893, p. 16 ff.
FORM. | NAME. | PRONUNCIATION. | NUMERICAL VALUE. |
' spiritus lenis | 1 | ||
b (bh, but see § 6 n ) | 2 | ||
g (gh, but see § 6 n ) | 3 | ||
d (dh, but see § 6 n ) | 4 | ||
h | 5 | ||
w (u)5 | 6 | ||
z, as in English (soft s) | 7 | ||
8 | |||
9 | |||
y (i)6 | 10 | ||
k (kh, but see § 6 n) | 20 | ||
l | 30 | ||
m | 40 | ||
n | 50 | ||
s | 60 | ||
‘ a peculiar gttural (see below) | 70 | ||
p (f, see § 6 n) | 80 | ||
90 | |||
q, astrong k7 formed at the back of the palate | 100 | ||
r | 200 | ||
300
| |||
t (th, but see § 6 n) | 400 |
Rem. 1. The forms of the letters originally represent the rude outlines of perceptible objects, the names of which, respectively, begin with the consonant represented (akrophony). Thus e
YoÖd , in the earlier alphabets the rude picture of a hand, properly denotes hand (Heb.dy" ), but as a letter simply the soundy (y), with which this word begins;ÇAyiçn , originally a circle, properly an eye (!yI[;ñ ), stands for the consonant[ . In the Phoenician alphabet, especially, the resemblance of the forms to the objects denoted by the name is still for the most part recognizable (see the Table). In some letters (gà wà zà jà X ) the similarity is still preserved in the square character.
It is another question whether the present names are all original. They may be merely due to a later, and not always accurate, interpretation of the forms. Moreover, it is possible that in the period from about 1500 to 1000 B.C. the original forms underwent considerable change.
The usual explanation of the present names of the letters13 is: f
@l,a' ox,tyBe house,lm,GI camel (according to Lidzbarski, see below, perhaps originally!w<r>G: axe or pick-axe),tl,D' door (properly folding door; according to Lidzbarski, perhapsdD; the female breast),ahe air-hole (?), lattice-window (?),ww" hook, nail,!yIz: weapon (according to Nestle, comparing the Greekzh/taë , rathertyIz: olive-tree),tyxe fence, barrier (but perhaps only differentiated fromh by the left-hand stroke),tyje a winding (?), according to others a leather bottle or a snake (but perhaps only differentiated fromt by a circle round it),dAy hand,@K; bent hand,dm,l' ox-goad,~yIm; water,!Wn fish (Lidzbarski, 'perhaps originallyvx'n" snake,' as in Ethiopic),%m,s' prop (perhaps a modification ofz ),!yI[; eye,aPe (alsoyPe ) mouth,ydec' fish-hook (?),@Aq eye of a needle, according to others back of the head (Lidzb., 'perhapstv,q, bow'),vyre head,!yvi tooth,wT' sign, cross.
With regard to the origin of this alphabet, it may be taken as proved that it is not earlier (or very little earlier) than the fifteenth century B. C., since otherwise the el-Amarna tablets (§ 2 f) would not have been written exclusively in cuneiform.14 It seems equally certain on various grounds, that it originated on Canaanitish soil. It is, however, still an open question whether the inventors of it borrowed g
(a) From the Egyptian system — not, as was formerly supposed, by direct adoption of hieroglyphic signs (an explanation of twelve or thirteen characters was revived byJ. HaleÃvy inRev.SeÃmit. 1901, p. 356 ff., 1902, p. 331 ff., and in the Verhandlungen des xiii. … Orient.-Kongr. zu Hamb., Leiden, 1904, p. 199 ff.; but cf. Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, i. 261 ff.), or of hieratic characters derived from them (soE. de Rougeà ), but by the adoption of the acrophonic principle (see e) by, which e. g. the hand, in Egyptian tot, represents the letter t, the lion = laboi, the letter l. This view still seems the most probable. It is now accepted by Lidzbarski ('Der Ursprung d. nord- u. südsemit. Schrift' in Ephemeris, i (1900), 109 ff., cf. pp. 134 and 261 ff.), though in his Nordsem. Epigr. (1898) p. 173 ff. he was still undecided.
(b) From the Babylonian (cuneiform) system. Wuttke's and W. Deecke's derivation of the old-Semitic alphabet from new-Assyrian cuneiform is impossible for chronological reasons. More recently Peters and Hommel have sought to derive it from the old-Babylonian, and Ball from the archaic Assyrian cuneiform. A vigorous discussion has been aroused by the theory of Frdr. Delitzsch (in Die Entstehung des ält. Schriftsystems od. der Urspr. der Keilschriftzeichen dargel., Lpz. 1897; and with the same title 'Ein Nachwort', Lpz. 1898, preceded by a very clear outline of the theory) that the old-Semitic alphabet arose in Canaan under the influence both of the Egyptian system (whence the acrophonic principle) and of the old-Babylonian, whence the principle of the graphic representation of objects and ideas by means of simple, and mostly rectilinear, signs. He holds that the choice of the objects was probably (in about fifteen cases) influenced by the Babylonian system. The correspondence of names had all the more effect since, according to Zimmern (ZDMG. 1896, p. 667 ff.), out of twelve names which are certainly identical, eight appear in the same order in the Babylonian arrangement of signs. But it must first be shown that the present names of the 'Phoenician' letters really denote the original picture. The identity of the objects may perhaps be due simply to the choice of the commonest things (animals, implements, limbs) in both systems.
The derivation of the Semitic alphabet from the signs of the Zodiac and their names, first attempted by Seyffarth in 1834, has been revived by Winckler, who refers twelve fundamental sounds to the Babylonian Zodiac. Hommel connects the original alphabet with the moon and its phases, and certain constellations; cf. Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, i. 269 ff., and in complete agreement with him, Benzinger, Hebr. Archäologie2, p. 173 ff. This theory is by no means convincing.
(c) From the hieroglyphic system of writing discovered in 1894 by A. J. Evans in inscriptions in Crete (esp. at Cnossus) and elsewhere. According to Kluge (1897) and others, this represents the 'Mycenaean script' used about 3000–1000 B. C., and according to Fries ('Die neuesten Forschungen über d. Urspr. des phöniz. Alph.' in ZDPV. xxii. 118 ff.) really supplies the original forms of the Phoenician alphabet as brought to Palestine by the Philistines about 1100 B. C., but 'the Phoenician-Canaanite-Hebrews gave to the Mycenaean signs names derived from the earlier cuneiform signs'. The hypothesis of Fries is thus connected with that of Delitzsch. But although the derivation of the Phoenician forms from 'Mycenaean' types appears in some cases very plausible, in others there are grave difficulties, and moreover the date, 1100 B.C., assigned for the introduction of the alphabet is clearly too late. [See Evans, Scripta Minoa, Oxf. 1909, p. 80 ff.]
(d) From a system, derived from Asia Minor, closely related to the Cypriote syllabary (Praetorius, Der Urspr. des kanaan. Alphabets, Berlin, 1906). On this theory the Canaanites transformed the syllabic into an apparently alphabetic writing. In reality, however, they merely retained a single sign for the various syllables, so that e. g.q is not really q, but qa, qe, qi, &c. Of the five Cypriote vowels also they retained only the star (in Cypriote = a) simplified into anaÒlef (see alphabetical table) to express the vowels at the beginning of syllables, and i and u as Yod and Waw. Praetorius claims to explain about half the twenty-two Canaanite letters in this way, but there are various objections to his ingenious hypothesis.
2. As to the order of the letters, we possess early evidence in the alphabetic15 poems: h
y Ps 9 (aÄk , cf.y Ps 10:1l , and VV12–17qÄt ; cf. Gray in the Expositor, 1906, p. 233 ff., and Rosenthal, ZAW. 1896, p. 40, who shows thaty Ps 9:13, 15. 17kà là n exactly fit in betweenxà jà y , and thaty Ps 10:1, 3, 5 therefore has the reverse orderlà kà y ; alsoyy 25 and 34 (both without a separatewÄ -verse and withp repeated at the end16); 37, 111, 113, 119 (in which every eight verses begin with the same letter, each strophe, as discovered by D. H. Müller of Vienna, containing the eight leading words ofy Ps 19:8 ff.,toÖraÒ, ÇeÒduÖth, &c.); La 1–4 (in 2–4p before[ 17, in chap. 3 every three verses with the same initial, see Löhr, ZAW. 1904, p. 1 ff., in chap. 5 at any rate as many verses as letters in the alphabet); Pr 24:1, 3, 5, 31:10–31 (in the LXX withp before[ 18); also in Na 1:2–10 Pastor Frohnmeyer of Württemberg (ob. 1880) detected traces of an alphabetic arrangement, but the attempt of Gunkel, Bickell, Arnold (ZAW. 1901, p. 225 ff.), Happel (Der Ps. Nah, Würzb. 1900) to discover further traces, has not been successful. [Cf. Gray in Expositor, 1898, p. 207 ff.; Driver, in the Century Bible, Nahum, p. 26.) — Bickell, Ztschr f. Kath. Theol., 1882, p. 319 ff., had already deduced from the versions the alphabetical character of Ecclus 51:13–30, with the omission of thewÄ verse and withp 19 at the end. His conjectures have been brilliantly confirmed by the discovery of the Hebrew original. although the order fromg tol is partly disturbed or obscured. Ifw beforec is deleted, ten letters are in their right positions, and seven can be restored to their places with certainty. Cf. N. Schlögl, ZDMG. 53, 669 ff.; C. Taylor in the appendix to Schechter and Taylor, The Wisdom of Ben Sira, Cambr. 1899, p. lxxvi ff., and in the Journ. of Philol., xxx (1906), p. 95 ff.; JQR. 1905, p. 238 ff.; Löhr, ZAW. 1905, p. 183 ff.;I. LeÃvy, REJ. 1907, p. 62 ff.
The sequence of the three softest labial, palatal, and dental soundsbà gà d , and of the three liquidslà mà n , indicates an attempt at classification. At the same time other considerations also appear to have had influence. Thus it is certainly not accidental, that two letters, representing a hand (Yod, Kaph), as also two (ifQoÖph = back of the head) which represent the head, and in general several forms denoting objects naturally connected (MeÖm andNuÖn, ÇAyiçn andPeÖ ), stand next to one another.
The order, names, and numerical values of the letters have passed over from the Phoenicians to the Greeks, in whose alphabet the letters A to i
U are borrowed from the Old Semitic. So also the Old Italic alphabets as well as the Roman, and consequently all alphabets derived either from this or from the Greek, are directly or indirectly dependent on the Phoenician.
3. a. In default of special arithmetical figures, the consonants were used also as numerical signs; cf. G. Gundermann, Die Zahlzeichen, Giessen, 1899, p. 6 f., and Lidzbarski, Ephemeris, i. 106 ff. The earliest traces of this usage are, however, first found on the Maccabean coins (see above, § 2 d, end). These numerical letters were afterwards commonly employed, e.g. for marking the numbers of chapters and verses in the editions of the Bible. The units are denoted by k
aÄj , the tens byyÄc , 100–400 byqÄt , the numbers from 500–900 byt (= 400), with the addition of the remaining hundreds, e. g.qt 500. In compound numbers the greater precedes (on the right), thusay 11,akq 121. But 15 is expressed bywj 9+6, nothy (which is a form of the divine name, being the first two consonants ofhwhy ).20 For a similar reasonzj is also mostly written for 16, instead ofwy , which in compound proper names, likelaeAy , also represents the name of God.hwhy .
The thousands are sometimes denoted by the units with two dots placed above, e. g.aoo 1000.
b. The reckoning of the years in Jewish writings (generally l
hrycyl after the creation) follows either the full chronology (lAdG" jr'p.li oräg äpl ), with the addition of the thousands, or the abridged chronology (!Ajq' äpl ), in which they are omitted. In the dates of the first thousand years after Christ, the Christian era is obtained by the addition of 240, in the second thousand years by the addition of 1240 (i. e. if the date falls between Jan. 1 and the Jewish new year; otherwise add 1239), the thousands of the Creation era being omitted.
4. Abbreviations of words are not found in the text of the O. T., but they occur on coins, and their use is extremely frequent amongst the later Jews.21 A point, or later an oblique stroke, serves as the sign of abridgement in old MSS. and editions, e. g. m
äfy forlaer'f.yIÃ äp , forynIl{P. aliquis,äd forrb'D' aliquid,äwgw forrm;Agw> et complens, i.e. and so on. Also in the middle of what is apparently a word, such strokes indicate that it is an abbreviation or a rox memorialis (cf. e. g. § 15 d~¾¾at ). Two such strokes are employed, from § 41 d onward, to mark the different classes of weak verbs. — Note alsoy"y> oryy" (alsoäh ) forhA'hy> .
5. Peculiarities in the tradition of the O. T. text, which are already mentioned in the Talmud, are — (1) The 15 puncta extraordinaria, about which the tradition (from Siphri on Nu 9:10 onwards) differs considerably, even as to their number; on particular consonants, Gn 16:5, 18:9, 19:33, 35, Nu 9:10; or on whole words, Gn 33:4, 37:12, Nu 3:39, 21:30, 29:15, Dt 29:28, 2 S 19:20, Is 44:9, Ez 41:20, 46:22, n
y Ps 27:13, — all no doubt critical marks; cf. Strack, Prolegomena Critica, p. 88 ff.; L. Blau, Masoretische Untersuchungen, Strassburg, 1891, p. 6 ff., and Einleitung in die hl. Schrift, Budapest, 1894; Königsberger, Jüd. Lit.-Blatt, 1891, nos. 29–31, and Aus Masorah u. Talmudkritik, Berlin, 1892, p. 6 ff.; Mayer-Lambert, REJ. 30 (1895), no. 59; and especially Ginsburg, Introd., p. 318 ff.; also on the ten points found in the Pentateuch, see Butin (Baltimore, 1906), who considers that they are as old as the Christian era and probably mark a letter, &c., to be deleted. (2) The literae majusculae (e. g.b Gn 1:1,w Lv 11:42 as the middle consonant of the Pentateuch,y Nu 14:17), and minusculuae (e. g.h Gn 2:4). (3) The literae suspensae (Ginsburg, Introd., p. 334 ff.)n Ju 18:30 (which points to the readinghv,m forhV,n:m. ),[ y Ps 80:14 (the middle of the Psalms22) and Jb 38:13, 15. (4) The 'mutilated'WaÒw in~wlX Nu 25:12, andq Ex 32:25 (~hymqb ), and Nu 7:2 (~ydwqph ). (5)MeÖm clausum inhbr~l Is 9:6 andMeÖm apertum in~ycwrp mh Neh 2:13. (6)NuÖn inversum before Nu 10:35, and after ver. 36, as also beforey Ps 107:23–28 and 40; according to Ginsburg, Introd., p. 341 ff., a sort of bracket to indicate that the verses are out of place; cf. Krauss, ZAW. 1902, p. 57 ff., who regards the invertedNuÖns as an imitation of the Greek obelus.
Footnotes:
4[2] Not 176, as formerly held. Driver and Lidzbarski now read
5[1] Philippi, 'Die Aussprache der semit. Consonanten
9[1] In the Talmud, disregarding the alphabetical order,
13[5] We possess Greek transcriptions of the Hebrew names, dating from the fifth century B. C. The LXX give them (in almost the same form as Eusebius, Praep. Evang. 10. 5) in La 1–4, as do also many Codices of the Vulgate (e. g. the Cod. Amiatinus) in
17[3] [Perhaps also originally in